A REVIEW OF DRINKING ZU IN ZOMI IN MYANMAR:
A Missiological Studies
By
Pau Do Lian
A Term Paper
Submitted to the Faculty of Asbury Theological Seminary as Requirements for Research Skills Methods for MissionMD980
Professor
Dr. Steve Offutt
May 2015
Table of Content
- Autobiography – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – 1
- Introduction – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 3
- Problem Statement – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 4
- Thesis – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 7
- Key Questions – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 8
- Literature Review – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 9
- Methodology – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 15
- The Research Scope – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 17
- Limitation of the Research – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 17
- Analysis – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – 18
- Self Reflection – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 20
- Bibliography – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 23
Autobiography
I was born and brought up at Tedim in the Western part of Myanmar, a community, where the practice of ancestor worship had greatly influenced since ancient era. At the outset, it will be worthwhile to narrate my experience about the Zomi ancestor worship as I grew up in the cultural milieu. Although my parents were converted to Christianity before I was born, I can still recall my childhood memory that the tutelary in our village had slaughtered a domestic animal and sacrificed to ancestors’ spirits for the sick people, bad weather, and bad harvest.
The tutelary and community believed that the ancestors’ spirits were pleased and as a result, everything turned into normal. In the process of performing sacrifice, the tutelary of the village led the ritual ceremony and consumed a cup or two of Zu[1] rice-beer and spit it out around as he invoked the ancestors’ spirits, here the Zu functions just like the oil does in Christian prayer. In short, to forbid drinking Zu in Zomi society is equivalent to destroying the culture.
Long before the American Baptist Missionaries and the British colonial came to Myanmar, the Zomi already had ancestor worship as their primal religion. Therefore, the ancestor worshippers have seen Christianity as an imported religion in the same manner in which the Buddhist government saw it. As the British colonialists entered into the Chin Hills tribe, as though they paved a way for Christian missionary, it was the American Baptist Missionaries who initiated mission work and planted the seed of Christian faith in our land.
Despite the numerous positive impacts of the mission work among the Hill tribe, there were a few negative outcomes as well. It was the ignorance of the local cultural practice and belief systems. Unfortunately, Christian missionary condemned the indigenous beliefs systems as evil, favoring Christianity instead. In the course of time, I learnt that American Baptist Missionaries in our region had forbidden folkdance, drinking Zu, and considered ancestral elements as source of evil. Since then, Christian in our community developed the same concept.
This study intended to reconstruct theology appropriately to the cultural context by employing the elements of Zomi ancestor worship without condemning and destroying the form, value, and meaning of the culture.
Introduction
The Republic of the Union of Myanmar, with an area of 676,577 squares kilometers, is the largest country in Southeast Asia. The statistic recorded in 2012 give Myanmar’s population as 60,976000[2] and out of this figure, the Zomi population comprises about 0.5%.[3] The major religions in Myanmar are Buddhism 89.4%, Christianity 5.9%, Islam 3.9%, Hinduism 0.5% and animism 1.2%. Small members practice Confucianism, Judaism and Laipianism, which is a unique local religion. [4]
In his book, “A History of Christian Mission” Stephen Neill says, most of the religions of mankind have been local, and even tribal, in their character.”[5] There are local religions in Myanmar too. Spiro said in his study of Burmese supernaturalism, “that there are a variety of supernaturalism, beliefs, ghosts, demons, witches, and those spirits whom Burmese call nats”[6] and there are at least Thirty-Seven nats.[7] In his finding, Spiro stated that the Burmese Buddhism and supernaturalism belief system are substantively distinct but they function in many similar ways.
Practically it is true that Burmese Buddhists worship Nat side by side with the Buddha. Therefore, some Pastors suspected the belief systems of the Zomi ancestor worship might have been influenced by the concepts of Buddhism or supernaturalism.[8]
Within the scope of this paper I will examine the superstitions, beliefs, and primal worship of the hill tribe of the Zomi.[9] Ancestor worship or primal religion was deeply embedded in the life of the people. Therefore, the cultural elements will be dealt with in length to contextualize the Gospel in light of the Bible. For instance, the domestic animal sacrifices, as a treatment for sickness, propitiating to the spirits to protect family from harms, and promoting fertility,[10] can become a raw material for local theology. This will allow the researcher to explore the detailed essences of ancestral worship and the implications to use for contextual theology.
The Problems
The Zomi have a very rich tradition, which prepared and shaped their society and worldview. A study of the society before the intervention of colonial powers and missionaries will give a clear picture of the Zomi tradition. On the one hand, the religious practice of domestic animal sacrifices in Zomi is regarded that the ancestor spirits are pleased and as a result, the spirits control material prosperity; on the other hand, this practice is the main consumption of local resources.[11]
One of the earliest ethnographers in Zomi region Stevenson say, “In view of the number of animals killed every year, there is a very large economic wastage of hides, the local people ignoring this potential source of considerable wealth.”[12] There are numerous motifs in the animal sacrifices of the Zomi people, which the researcher will expand in depth. With regard to animal sacrifices, there is enough economic reason to displace the traditional beliefs and practice of animal sacrifice in the Zomi people.
A new religion call Laipianism
[inventor of literature]
by Pau Cin Hau appeared in response to the practice of ancestor worship in Zomi. As I came from the same clan of Pau Cin Hau, my parents told me a lot about him. He was born in 1859 at Tedim. In the course of time, he was sick for fifteen years- 1888 through 1902 the usual sacrifice to ancestors’ spirits were not effective. During his sickness he had visions, which he interpreted Pasian [God] was speaking to him whereby he claimed to have had a miraculous healing. The greatest significance of the Pau Cin Hau movement was the abolition of domestic animal sacrifice.
In line with this practical result, Carey noted, “None are capable of bestowing blessings but all are prone to do damage and inflict loss and suffering; therefore, they must be propitiated with sacrifices.”[13] This Laipianism movement is also known as Pau Cin Hau religion which begun to spread in Chin region sometime in 1900. Laipian literally means creator of writing as he claimed to have received the script while he got revelations from God.
The encounter of colonial rulers and western missionaries had in fact a great impact on the Zomi cultural life and religious worldview. When the first American Baptist Missionaries, Arthur Carson and Laura Carson arrived at Zomi region, Laura said to her husband, “I can’t stay on and live out my life in this awful place among these loathsome people and I wept bitterly – not more because of my disappointment in the place and the people than for my own inability to meet the situation bravely.”[14]
The cultural live and social systems were simply too hard to cope for strangers like Carson and Laura. For these pioneer missionaries in Zomi region, the controversial outcome of the missionary work was due to subordinating the sociocultural life of the people. They think that the Western the Western culture and tradition was the best for all human beings and imposing them on another culture was valid at all times and places. This was the genesis of the problem between religion and culture in Zomi context.
The American Baptist Churches in the States forbid the consumption of any wine or alcohol; therefore, the American Baptist missionaries to the Zomi region saw drinking “zu”[15] in the Zomi community as a source of evil. Right from the beginning, the Zomi Zu, made of rice, corn, millet, had considered to be a nutritious food in Zomi community, a Zomi scholar noted, “they are often simply hungry for meat and zu.”[16] “When the missionaries had prohibited rice-beer zu drinking without replacing it with something else to use like zu, it was one of the hindrances of Christianity.”[17] There is a question to what extend Zu plays role in the Zomi society? When the habit of drinking zu was prohibited in the society something instinctively was missing in the community. For example before the missionaries came zu could bring peace between rival communities, families, and friends. So drinking zu in Zomi community plays important role in celebrating any kinds of feast such as wedding, feast of harvest, and also for funeral ceremony as to ease the grief of the family of the death.
Thesis Statement
The practice of drinking Zu in Zomi has multipurpose in the sociocultural setting since ancient era. Zu is a crucial element both in ritual practice and social system in the Zomi community. Thus for Zomi, Zu is just like the wine element in Christian’s communion services. Since drinking zu intertwined with its cultural life, it was a controversial debate when the American Baptist Missionaries forbid drinking zu for new converts in Zomi region of Chin state in Myanmar.
This dissertation will explore the negative impact of eliminating the use of zu on the ground of cultural value and propose an appropriate replacement with something else. Finding a replacement of drinking zu required a rigorous ethnographic research among the Zomi people who have directly or indirectly experience ancestral worship.
Key Questions
- Can traditional elements from ancestor worship be contextualized for use in the Christian Church?
It is essential to ask the questions on what role the essence of ancestral worship play as a paradigm shift in doing theology? Is keeping ancestor element in Zomi barriers or bearers for social and theological development? Since religion and culture are deeply intertwined at the beginning of the formation of Zomi society, it is worthwhile to ask questions such as:
- How religion is understood, experienced and practiced among the Zomi society?
- What is the relationship between ancestor worship and social development?
- What elements from ancestors’ worship can engage with the religious practice and social development?
- Can cultural praxis in ancestor worship be substituted with something else, which is more acceptable in the Church?
- What are the cultural elements, which have made barrier between Christian and Non-Christian? Drinking Zu (rice-beer) in Zomi society created misunderstanding between Christian and Non-Christian and among Christianity as well. Detailed elements, which barricades between the two, are mentioned in the next sections.
- What elements, but equal value and meaning, can replace them?
Literature Review:
Thomas Sian Za Kham, a medical doctor who grew up as an animist in Zomi region and converted into Christianity in 2000, had written, “Glimpse of Zomi Animism in Retrospect.” This classical book written with his vast knowledge on the Zomi culture and religion remains one of the most reliable sources for my paper. Dr. Kham uses the term Pasian or Pathian which is borrowed from Pau Cin Hau. Pau Cin Hau of Sukte clan was the founder of Laipianism (creation of the letter). When Pau Cin Hau was sick for fifteen years, the usual sacrifices to the spirits (evil spirits Dawi) were ineffective. During this period, from 1888 to 1902, he was having a vision, which he interpreted as God; Pasian was speaking to him.[18] He formed an indigenous religion call Laipianism (the creation of the letter) because Pasian gave him letters for the Zomi people. According to his revelation, Pasian god is the one who has all power and authority to judge the deeds of all human beings. In the following sections, the term God or Pasian[19] will be used alternatively to refer to Christian God.
The diverse ritual elements of the Zomi ancestor worship will be quoted from Dr. Kham and Dr. Vum Son. Some of the ritual elements, which often appeared are, Pusa [spirits of ancestors], Dawi namkim, [demon spirits], Tuulpi
[spirit medium]
, and Kamsang
[prophet, prophetess]
. This aspects will be dealt in length.
Dr. Vum Son, a Zomi leading scholar described that the Zomi “believe in a supreme God” and marked that, “the supreme God is never cruel and never hurt people.” On the one hand, Zomi people fear spirits who dwell on earth and below the earth such as in caves, springs, trees, mountains, houses and even human body and on the other hand Zomi people have made sacrifices to whom they fear so that the spirits would do no harm. Son categorized two types of spiritual beings here. The supreme God whom the Zomi people never made sacrifice or offer anything to him for he is not cruel and never punish human beings and the other spirits whom the Zomi people offered sacrifices dwell on earth and below the earth.[20]
It is said that these spirits inhabit caves, trees, rivers, mountains, and houses. Both are important but the latter [spirits] may contribute more to this writing than the former [Supreme God] as this study tends to frame within the elements of ancestors’ spirit ritual act as a paradigm shift in doing theology in the Zomi Christian Churches. Son’s book as the title goes, “Zo History,” is not purely a theological research, however, the anthropological fieldwork research he did among the Zomi people is considered one of the most reliable sources in its kind. He discovered the Zomi concept on life after death, rebirth, and type of spirits and its dwelling place for instance Rih Lake, Mt. Victoria, and Paha in Zomi regions.[21]
Some notable scholars viewed the Zomi were animists by religion and spirit worshippers. Still some described Zomi as worshippers of rocks and trees.[22] In his argument, Gin Khan Nang stated that the term, “nat” is inappropriate to apply in relation to the ancestor worship of Zomi. Because he says, “ancestral worship originating from Hinduism”[23] and he quoted from Carey and Tuck who agreed that Zomi “worshipped neither god nor demon.” Rather Zomi offered sacrifices to propitiate evil spirits.[24] He, Gin Khan Nang, explored the Zomi cultural and religious context through the lens of ethnographic research rather than geographically. According to him, half of the Zomi lived in the Northeast part of India, which shared border with Myanmar and another half inhabit the western Myanmar.
His arguments on the concept of Supreme Being in Zomi religious beliefs will help this researcher will have more details about the elements of Zomi ritual performance. He said that in Zomi, “the Supreme Being is referred to as male and creator of all things including human beings, heaven, earth and moon and stars. He is all good, loving, merciful and kind.”[25] These findings will help to answer my main question, “Can traditional elements from Zomi ancestor worship be contextualized for use in the Christian Church and Development.”
Attempts will be made to answer the question by developing the concept of Zomi on the supreme God in the preceding paragraph. The dualistic concept coexisted in Zomi, the Supreme Being and ancestral spirits, may have come from the influence of Buddhism since the Burmese Buddhists believe in many gods and spirits. There are different views on the term, “supreme God or supreme being” pasian.[26], according to Vum Son, the term “pasian” exactly referred to Christian God. He asserts that the supreme God and spirit beings are different in nature. The supreme God involved in the welfare of the community, and the spirit [demon] powerfully controlled the land, the rivers, the mountains, and houses. Another Zomi scholar preferred to term, the supreme god of Zomi as shahkhua[27] which interpretation implies more to mundane god than the creator of the universe.
A notable Chin[28] scholar, Lian Hmung Sakhong had explored the concept of Chin traditional way of ritual ceremonies. The elements of Chin traditional beliefs systems he discovered are songs, prayers, feasts, and sacrificial ceremonies.[29] Sakhong looks at the Chin traditional beliefs as their primal religious practice in the same way through the lens of a Zomi leading scholar Vum Son. However, his findings are added value to my paper. Some of the religious terms of Sakhong are different from the Zomi scholars’ such as Vum Son, Simon Pau Khan En, and Gin Khang Nang. However, there are aspects of Sakhong findings which, shared similarity with that of Zomi scholars.
In his work, Models of Contextual Theology,[30] Stephen B. Bevans proposes five models of contextualization – namely, the Translation Model, the Anthropological Model, the Praxis Model, the Synthetic Model and the Transcendental Model. In his book, Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies,[31] identified three models: The Translation Model, the Adaptation Model, and the Contextual Model. I will use appropriate models from these scholars, to employ the elements of ancestor worship such as, animal sacrifices, ritual prayers, celebrating success of hunting, and harvest crops as a paradigm shift for doing theology and development in the Zomi context. In the process of doing this contextualization, the model offered by Bevans and Schreiter will play significant role.
I will look at two research principles the Indigenous principles and the Pilgrim principles and find common ground as God accepts us as we are on the ground of Christ work alone not on the ground of what we become. This implies that human beings are conditioned by elements including family, society, culture, and race but in Christ God accept us together with these elements. In his book, “The Missionary Movement in Christian History” Andrew Walls says, “We are conditioned by culture in fact. In Christ God accepts us together with our group relations; with that cultural conditioning that makes us feel at home in one part of human society and less at home in another.”[32] It is impossible to separate any individual life from his or her social relationship, but live a Christian life and yet identified with particular society.
A biblical model of contextualization from Dean Flemming, “Contextualization for the New Testament, will be drawn from the lens of Apostle Paul approached to Athens, Antioch and Lystra.[33]
Ancestor worship in Southeast Asia
Interestingly in his book, Glimpses of Zomi Animism in Retrospect, Thomas Sian Za Kham has noted the similarity between Cambodian’s ancestor worship and Zomi Animism. While he was still an animist, he went to Cambodia to serve as a Medical Coordinator in Ratanakiri Hospital. He had encounter with some of the customs and cultures of Cambodian Hill tribe. According to him, the table below demonstrates comparison between two different languages on the same meaning.
| Zomi Animism | Cambodian Hill Tribes | Meaning in English |
| 1. Pusa | Kayok | Spirits of Ancestor |
| 2. Dawi nam kim | Arak Bri | Diversity of Spirits |
| 3. Siampi, Tulpi, Dawisa | Arak | Spirit Medium |
| 4. Dawi Thawih | Arak Brou | Propitiation Spirits |
| 5. Phuisam | Sen | To invoke / Chant |
| 6. Dawi Ai, Mibum | Gru | Sorcerer |
| 7. Kamsang | Arak Moot Lye | Prophet/prophetess |
In Borneo in Indonesia, ethnic groups such as Luangan Dayaks have regular contact with ancestors’ spirits and believed that they are capable of influencing events. In his book, Ancestors in Borneo Societies Death, Transformation, and Social Immorality Kennet Sillander says, “I will demonstrate the importance of Bentian ancestors by describing the different manifestations of the Bentian dead and the ritual contexts in which they are invoked.”[35] One of the manifestations of the function of ancestors in Bentian has similar concepts with that of zomi ancestor worship. That is invoking the spirits of the dead in believing that they are capable of bestowing the well-being of the society in harvest, business, health, marriage, hunting, and livestock.
Statement of Methodology
I intended to use qualitative methodology in developing my research fieldwork through personal interview and questionnaires correspondence via email.
The qualitative research methodologies will provide this researcher with the perspective of the targeted audience members either through direct or indirect interaction with the people under study. The advantage of using this method in ethnographic research is to participate, observe, personal interview, and case study, related to the research topic.
There are three parts to this research approaches.
The Sources
In order to study the Zomi ancestor worship the study adopted a historical method to collect facts of the past. Many scholars assumed that Zomi practices animism as their traditional religion. Carey and Tuck asserts:
The Chin is often described as a devil-worshipper. This is incorrect for he worships neither nor evil. The northerners believe that there is no Supreme Being and although the southern Chins admit that there is a Supreme God or Khozin [khawzing] to whom they sacrifice, they do not worship him and never look to him for any grace or mercy, except that of withholding the plagues and misfortunes which he is capable of invoking on any in this world who offend him.[36]
To understand the impact of drinking zu in zomi ritual practice, virtual and face-to-face interview will be conducted. The aim in interviewing the use of zu in zomi society is to get ideas about how it had negative impact on Christianity and propose a possible replacement for zu. Resources available in this area from libraries, online articles, oral reports and software/internet will be my primary sources. As I have grown up in a multi-religious society of Myanmar in general and in Zomi community in particular, my personal experiences will be added value in this paper.
The Research Scope
The public sources will be a collection of books and data, which will be listed in the bibliography. It is impossible to do a thorough research on ancestor worship in the Zomi community on the one hand, and to make a complete theological reflection from all angles, on the other hand. The scope of this research is narrowed to the use of Zu in Zomi culture and ancestor worship.
Limitation of the Research
The first limitation is lack of anthropological references in Myanmar in general and Zomi in particular. Up until today no qualified anthropologists have done research among minority ethnic groups especially in the Zomi society. There are some scholars who did research out of their curiosity and interest and a few missionaries who kept record of some of the ethnic group’s lives’ culture and religions. The second limitation is due to the unstable political situation. The country was closed in 1962 and foreigner expertise field research work was no longer possible. Moreover, most of the national researchers have left the country as the outcome of the severe uprising political crisis in 1988. Because of the presence of heterogeneous ethnic groups in Myanmar, some called, a melting pot of racial groups. This melting pot causes more difficulty for researchers who wish to cover ethnic religious beliefs. The third limitation in this research is the current political challenged to the upcoming 2015 election. Thousands of University students have protested and also heavy fighting have been happening between the Myanmar National Army and Myanmar National Democratic Alliance (MNDA) in Kokang near the China-Myanmar border.[37] If the political situation allows the researcher hope to visit the country, which might produce profitable personal interviews with local chieftains who have knowledge about the ancestor worship. As a timely visit seems to be unpredictable, working through correspondence with Zomi scholars might serve another optional due to the unforeseeable political trends.
Analysis
Choosing to write on this topic is culturally relevant and socially practical in Zomi Christian community around the world. The outbreak of political crises in 1962 and 1988 in Myanmar have caused severe economic problems as a result, tens of thousands of people fled to first world countries and Zomi people are part of them. Although those immigrants abandoned ancestors worship, they could not abstain the drinking of Zu partly because of the influence from forefathers but it is always opted for self-entertainment instead of a cultural preservation.
There are at least two trajectories on the ultimate goal in spirits’ worship, the physical and spiritual dimension. This paper tried to cover both the former and the latter as precisely as possible. In any case, it is difficult to have complete information with regard to this aspect. And therefore, it is my hope to have more fully in the final phase of the writing.
In light of the ancestors worship, I try to interpret the physical periphery, which has to do with cultural practice and bring to linkage the Gospel of Christ. In order to bestow physical blessing, the ancestors’ spirits have to be propitiated with domestic animals. Nevertheless, the material consumption to perform sacrificial act to spirits often exceeds the blessing they received.
To this end, certain research has been done on the impact of Christian missionaries toward the Zomi traditional beliefs and the consequent have both negative and positive outcome. To give possible answers for the negative impact of the missionary work, the writer of this paper look at different views from different authors. In addition to this; personal interview will be conducted by oral or written questionnaires with people who have experienced about ancestor worship in Zomi. School library will be used as the main source for the writing.
Appropriate contextual model will be drawn from Stephen Bevans, Robert J. Schreiter, and Zomi scholars. This integral model from the West and indigenous people will fit the cultural context of the audience. On top of these sources, qualitative research via face-to-face or virtual online interview will be conducted to collect concrete data.
Self Reflections
Doing contextual theology seems fantastic but it is complex in approach and sensitive in reality. However, knowing that no theologians have done contextual theology in my context, it is a necessity to do theology in such cultural context. Therefore it makes sense to me why do I want to do contextual theology. The idea of the need for contextualization in my context emerged while doing my second master at Andover Newton in Boston.
In this coursework with the aim to find reconciliations ethnicity and religiosity in a Buddhist country Myanmar, I entitled an “Border Without Boundaries: Dialogue as a bridge between Buddhist-Christian in Myanmar” for my thesis. Through this research, I came across the need for contextual theology in Myanmar in general and particular in Zomi. Because the finding proved that the imported Western theology does not fit into Myanmar cultures. That is the point we need a local theology made in our home country. Interestingly, I have discovered that some leading pastors and theologians in Myanmar go too far in contextualizing the Gospel into the Buddhist traditions as a result, this approach tendency to religious plurality whereby Jesus alone is not the way but just one of the ways, which is unbiblical to me. Conversely, there are certain Christian pastors and theologians in Myanmar who still think that theology came from God through the Western and contextualization into other culture is impossible.
My intention in contextualizing the Gospel in Zomi context is to address the need to take cultural values, meanings, and forms in theology and also expose the risk in syncretism and compromise with other religions. Attempts will be made an explicit biblical balance but with Christ above culture point of view.
In the scripture, we have found the contextual models of apostle Paul in evangelizing to Athens, Lystra, and Antioch (Flemming 2005). Paul approach was not on the ground of what we have become something but on the ground of the work of Christ through that God accepts us as we are. In his book, “Christ and Culture,”[38] H. Richard Niebuhr layout, how Christ and Culture are related. In fact understanding, feeling, worldview, value, and meaning are shaped by our cultures and thus, it is impossible to get rid of our cultural relations while doing theology. Since Zomi ancestor worship is deeply intertwined with the culture, Niebuhr concepts on this “Christ and Culture” will contribute in framing the proposed models. At this stage, my research framework is still in progress however; I will strive my best to accomplish the paper.
In doing this, contextual theology, Zomi Christian pastors will be able construct appropriate pastoral theology for their members and the non-Christians will see that there is a possibility for them to get saved through Christ without condemning the cultural practices. It is extremely important to respect local cultures as it is imbued with religious praxis. Western missionaries in the early eighteenth and nineteenth century in Myanmar occupied Buddhist monasteries for Christian mission stations and schools at the expense of the British powers. When American missionaries arrived Zomi region in Myanmar, they forced them to get rid off traditional ceremony including, harvest festival, burial ceremony, and other cultural practices. It is an urgent need to bring Christ into Zomi people culturally relevant without alleviating the cultural values.
The ultimate aim of this paper is to deconstruct the Western cultures attached to the Christian faith, which viewed other cultures especially on the traditional drinking of Zu. To propose appropriate replacement or substitution for Zu will be determined from the outcome of the ethnography research. Growing up as a believer of Christ in the community, my personal recommendation whether to refrain or preserve drinking Zu will be based on my own experiences.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bevans, Stephen B. Models of Contextual Theology, New York: Orbis Book 2002.
Couderc, Pascal. Sillander, Kenneth. Ancestors in Borneo Societies Death, Transformation, and Social Immorality Copenhagen: S, Denmark 2012.
Carson, Laura H. Pioneer Trials, Trials and Triumphs, New York: Baptist Board of Education, Department of Missionary Education, 1927.
Carey, Bertram Sausmarez. Tuck, Henry Newman. The Chin Hills: A History of the People, our dealing with them, their customs and Manners, and a Gazetteer of their Country (Rangon: Government Printing, Burma 1896, Vol. I.
En, Simon Pau Khan, Nat Worship: A Paradigm for Doing Contextual Theology in Myanmar, Yangon: Judson Research Center of the Myanmar Institute of Theology, 2012.
Flemming, Dean, Contextualization for the New Testament, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2005.
Kham, Thomas Sian Za, Glimpses of Zomi Animism In Retrospect, Yangon: Hebron Printing Press, 2003.
Neill, Stephen, A History of Christian Mission, London: Penguin Books, 1990.
Nawni, Khuang. The History and Growth of the Churches in Chin State, Myanmar, Fuller Theological Seminary: Th. M Thesis, 1990.
Nang, Gin Khan, Zomi Christianity and Cultural Transformation, Fuller Theological Seminary: A Dissertation for Doctor of Philosophy Intercultural Studies 2010.
Niebuhr H. Richard, Christ and Culture New York: Harper & Row Publishers 1951.
Stevenson, H. N. C. The Economics of The Central Chin Tribes Bombay: The Time of India Press, 1943
Sakhong, Lian Hmung, Religion and Politics among the Chin People in Burma -1896-1949, Uppsala: Uppsala University, 2000.
Saw Shee Sho, Doing Theology in Myanmar’s Context, Myanmar Church of the Province: 2006.
Spiro, Melford E. Burmese Supernaturalism, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1967.
Son, Vum, Zo History: With an introduction to Zo Culture, Economy, Religion and their status as an ethnic minority in India, Burma, and Bangladesh, Aizawl: C/O N.T. Thawnga, Venghlui, Mizoram, 1987.
Schreiter, Robert J. Constructing Local Theologies, New York: Orbis Books, 2010.
Walls, Andrew F. The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in the Transformation of Faith, New York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 1996.
Websites
Radio Free Asia (RFA) News, February 23, 2015. http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/kokang-02232015173457.html
[1] Zu is a Rice Beer which is brewed with leaven for at least seven days and used for social gathering in time of ceremony and comforting one another
[2] https://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM see April 7, 2015.
[3] https://www.ethnologue.com/country/MM/languages seen April 7, 2015.
[4] Saw Shee Sho, Doing Theology in Myanmar’s Context (Myanmar Church of the Province: 2006), 1
[5] Stephen Neill, A History of Christian Mission (London: Penguin Books, 1990), 13
[6] Melford E. Spiro, Burmese Supernaturalism (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1967), 3
[7] Ibid. 91
[8] Dr. Neng Khan Thang, Class Lectures in 1998 at Grace Baptist Theological Seminary in Yangon in 1st Year M.DIV
[9] Thomas Sian Za Kham, Glimpses of Zomi Animism In Retrospect (Yangon: Hebron Printing Press, 2003),
[10] Simon Pau Khan En, Nat Worship: A Paradigm for Doing Contextual Theology in Myanmar (Yangon: Judson Research Center of the Myanmar Institute of Theology, 2012), 37
[11] H. N. C. Stevenson, The Economics of The Central Chin Tribes (Bombay: The Time of India Press, 1943), 156
[12] Ibid, 50
[13] Turck, Carey, The Chin Hill, 196
[14] Laura H. Carson, Pioneer Trials, Trials and Triumphs (New York: Baptist Board of Education, Department of Missionary Education, 1927), 163.
[15] Zu is made of Rice as a traditional alcohol.
[16] Vum Son, 12
[17] Khuang Nawni, The History and Growth of the Churches in Chin State, Myanmar (Fuller Theological Seminary: Th. M Thesis, 1990), 110.
[18] Thomos Sian Za Kham, Glimpses of Zomi Animism in Retrospect, (Yangon: Hebron Printing Press, 2003), 3
[19] The term Pasian in Zomi language is driven from Pau Cin Hau as he claimed that God revealed to him.
[20] Vum Son, Zo History: With an introduction to Zo Culture, Economy, Religion and their status as an ethnic minority in India, Burma, and Bangladesh (Aizawl: C/O N.T. Thawnga, Venghlui, Mizoram, 1987), 16
[21] Son, 16
[22] Gin Khan Nang, Zomi Christianity and Cultural Transformation, (Fuller Theological Seminary: A Dissertation for Doctor of Philosophy Intercultural Studies 2010), 34
[23] Nang, 14
[24] Ibid. 34
[25] Ibid. 35
[26] Son, 16
[27] Nang, 35
[28] The term “Chin” is an ethnic name given by the people of Burma. However, there is a controversial debate among the indigenous people of the Chin state that some agreed Chin is our origin whereas other half claimed Zo as their origin therefore called themselves as Zomi (Zo- name+ Mi-people= Zomi).
[29] Lian Hmung Sakhong, Religion and Politics among the Chin People in Burma -1896-1949, (Uppsala: Uppsala University, 2000), 117
[30] Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (New York: Orbis Book 2002), 88
[31] Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies (New York: Orbis Books, 2010), 22-23
[32] Andrew F. Walls, The Missionary Movement in Christian History: Studies in the Transformation of Faith, (New York: Maryknoll, Orbis Books, 1996), 7
[33] Dean Flemming, Contextualization for the New Testament (Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2005), 14
[34] Kham, Glimpse of Zomi Animism Retrospect, 44
[35] Pascal Couderc, Kenneth Sillander, Ancestors in Borneo Societies Death, Transformation, and Social Immorality (Copenhagen: S, Denmark 2012), 62
[36] Bertram Sausmarez Carey, Henry Newman Tuck, The Chin Hills: A History of the People, our dealing with them, their customs and Manners, and a Gazetteer of their Country (Rangon: Government Printing, Burma 1896) Vol. I. p. 195
[37] Radio Free Asia (RFA) News, February 23, 2015. http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/kokang-02232015173457.html
[38] H. Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper & Row Publishers 1951), vii
